Research Hub: EU citizens in the UK

To prevent a failure like Windrush from being repeated, it is essential to understand the challenges and experiences of more recent ethnic minority arrivals to the UK, including the significant population of racial and ethnic minority EU citizens. This report aims to do three things: 1) Quantify, identify, and locate resident ethnic minority EU citizens in the UK. 2) Offer a snapshot of their lived experience and socio-economic situation in the UK. 3) Consider ethnic minority EU citizens’ engagement with the post-Brexit immigration regime for EU citizens.

An updated briefing on the for the Roma population in Northern Ireland.

Perceptions of division in the UK have reached their highest point since trends began in 2020, with 84% of the public now saying the country feels divided – up from 79% two years ago and 74% five years ago. At the same time, the share who believe the nation is divided by “culture wars” specifically has risen by an even greater extent, from 46% in 2020 to 67% today, with most of this increase occurring since 2023, when 54% held this view. The findings come in a new study carried out by the Policy Institute at King’s College London and Ipsos, and also reveal a country increasingly nostalgic for the past and uneasy about the pace of cultural change, with tensions rising around …

The Independent Monitoring Authority for the Citizens Rights Agreements (IMA) finds that barriers to accessing rights are still a problem for some citizens five years on from Brexit.

Digital immigration status was implemented in Britain after Brexit, and it soon became a central component of the ‘hostile environment’ system of deputised border management. This paper argues that, in the presented case, digital technology reconfigured immigration status by shifting its operational logic from inscription towards computation. It thus produced trabnsactional subjects of border control. In paper-based systems, bordering practices slot individuals into relatively stable socio-legal categories when their status is documented. In contrast, the online-only system analysed here computes identity and status in real-time to enact legible subjects of border control. Its algorithmic logic computes biographic, biometric and immigration data – such as pending applications, grants of status, refusals, and rejections – to resolve records drawn from separate casework platforms and data stores into a singular identity and thus enact the subject of border control. These findings contribute to scholarship on digital borders, which shows that digitisation enables novel modes of immigration governance. However, the paper contests the notion that computation of personal attributes generates ‘data doubles’ as ‘traceable and sortable objects’ of border enforcement. Instead, it develops the notion of the transactional subject to show that ongoing computation of identity and acess becomes the overriding logic of border governance.

EU census maps

This briefing provides information on some key characteristics of the EU-born and EU citizen populations in the UK, focusing on England and Wales.

This briefing examines the role of EU citizens in the UK labour market, including their number, the jobs they do, and their economic outcomes.

This briefing outlines the evidence on EU citizens’ migration to the UK under the post-Brexit work visa system.

This briefing note examines the number of EU migrants registered to vote in Britain and how this has changed in recent years.

Following two decades of rapid growth, the EU citizen population in the UK has declined in the early 2020s. This briefing outlines what we know about mobility from the EU to the UK and how the EU-origin population in the UK has changed over time.

The migration of EU students to the UK has fallen significantly after Brexit. This briefing note discusses how the numbers have changed, how trends vary by country of origin, and what EU students study in the UK, as well as where.

This report updates the ‘No Access to Justice’ (2022) report on the provision of immigration and asylum legal advice across the UK. It examines legal aid and other free or low-cost services in England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, discussing emerging themes, before moving to a region-by-region analysis of demand and …

This paper explores the significance of the UK’s post-Brexit residency agreement for EU citizens – ‘Settled Status’ (EUSS) – as a ‘digital by default’ immigration regime. As the UK transitions to a digital-only immigration platform, EU citizens have, without consent, already been the subjects of experimentation within this new approach. Drawing on interviews with Polish citizens in the UK, this article analyses the lived experience and longer-term implications of this new digital bordering. Using a conceptual framework of literacies, legibilities and legacies we argue that the digital nature of EUSS has produced new exclusions, inequalities, vulnerabilities and anxieties. The move to a digital status has shaped who can access and navigate this system (literacies), tightened who is legally recognised within it (legibilities), and ultimately challenged trust in Settled Status as a long-term and secure immigration status (legacies). The findings here not only contribute to understanding EU citizens’ post-Brexit experiences, they also offer important new insights into the day-to-day realities and ongoing risks of a digital-only immigration …

Test if you are eligible to receive Universal credit with this tool from Work Rights Centre.

This toolkit is intended to be a guide for organisations working with EU citizens and their family members with rights conferred by the Withdrawal Agreement who want to expand their campaigning for change. It is intended to help organisations influence decision-makers, advocating for policy solutions informed and led by the lived experience of EU citizens in the UK who are facing issues with the EU Settlement Scheme

Drawing on original 2023/24 research, we show how historical marginalization made it particularly difficult for many Roma to successfully navigate the ‘digital by default’ EUSS in order to acquire a ‘settled’ status and, once acquired, use their new ‘digital only’ status in everyday life. Notably, those who were unable to acquire a new status, including many who probably had a legal right to status, risked a definitive loss of rights post-Brexit. We highlight the potential for a repeat of something like the ‘Windrush scandal’, but this time with racialized Roma EU citizens—rather than the Caribbean-origin ‘Windrush generation’—as its victims.

This research explores the representation of migrant groups in the UK Local Government workforces, focusing on six local authorities: Camden, Islington, Westminster, Harrow, Kensington and Chelsea and Birmingham City. It aims to identify gaps in migrant workforce representation and use this evidence to coordinate strategies – in partnership with public sector organisations – to increase migrant representation in their workforce, reflecting the diversity of the local population.

This open access book challenges the existing focus in EU citizenship scholarship which overlooks the limitations of free movement for atypical workers. Arguing that the deliberately vague EU concept of ‘work’ allows for its restricted application in Member States, the book shows how many workers and economic contributors are left out of the free movement regime. It does this by taking a mixed methods approach: relying on both qualitative case studies and legal analysis of EU and UK legislation, case law, and decision maker guidance. All this leads to a significant and original argument that, if EU free movement rights are awarded on the basis of market credentials, more must be done to work towards a more contemporary, accurate and inclusive market …

This briefing examines unauthorised migration—also known as ‘illegal immigration’ or ‘irregular migration’—in the UK, including the difficulties in defining and measuring it and evidence on its nature and scale.

Heather Rolfe examines new research that suggests that the public is more positive about student migration than the government may think.

The UK’s strict partner immigration rules aim to prevent forced or sham marriages—but the presented research suggests they may actually pressure bi-national couples into marrying to meet visa requirements.

This report explores housing challenges faced by Roma communities in London, including barriers faced in accessing adequate housing, and proposes policy solutions to address the challenges and inequalities identified. It is intended for policymakers, local authorities and professionals working in housing and homelessness services and organisations.

This briefing summarises public attitudes to immigration in Britain, covering overall support or opposition, trends over time, comparisons with other European countries, views on different types of immigrants, and how attitudes vary by age, education, and political views.

Catherine Barnard and Fiona Costello examine the problems with eVisas – online records of immigration status – and look at several case studies. https://ukandeu.ac.uk/evisas-what-why-and-when/

This briefing covers the scale of immigration and net migration in the UK since the early 2000s and under the post-Brexit immigration system. https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/long-term-international-migration-flows-to-and-from-the-uk/

International students are often disregarded in migrants’ rights advocacy, despite facing increasing restrictions on their immigration conditions in the UK. This is why we have conducted this research to understand how international students are treated.

The results of the online survey “Lived Experiences of the UK Immigration System” shed new light on non-UK citizens’ interactions with the immigration system. It covered migrants’ experiences of the immigration application process, their experiences proving their right to live and work and, their knowledge of the rights and conditions attached to their immigration status.

This paper presents RSG’s analysis of 2021 census data on Roma in England and Wales, highlighting national trends and local differences in the ten areas with the largest Roma populations.

The report explores the obstacles to academic and student mobility and emphasizes the contributions of the Spanish scientific diaspora in addressing these issues.

The research aims to provide information to migrants in Wales to be more aware of their rights and be able to exercise them.

This report examines the experiences of EU citizens from ethnic minority backgrounds in the UK, highlighting the specific challenges they face in securing and proving status under the EU Settlement Scheme. It draws on hundreds of first-hand accounts to reveal patterns of discrimination and systemic barriers.

This briefing examines labour migration and work visas in the UK immigration system, before and after the implementation of the post-Brexit immigration system. It presents data on migrant workers, particularly people coming to the UK on work visas (sometimes known as work permits).

This briefing provides statistics on people identifying with Gypsy, Roma or Traveller ethnic groups in the UK.

This briefing explains who can register to vote in UK elections, covering key criteria like nationality and residence. It also outlines how voting rights differ across the UK and includes a summary table of eligibility by election type.

Owen Parker outlines the issues that marginalised Roma EU citizens continue to encounter in relation to the EU Settlement Scheme and considers the broader lessons for the new government’s policies towards resident migrants in the UK.

This briefing examines migrants’ experiences and perceptions of discrimination due to their ethnicity, nationality, religion, language, or accent. It also discusses evidence of labour market discrimination against migrants and children of migrants.

Ed Turner and Dr Monika Brusenbauch Meislová explore the lessons for the UK and the EU of the recent negotiations on a potential UK-EU youth mobility scheme.

TThe Rome Support Group has developed this toolkit based on our long-term work with local authorities and local Roma advocates and community organisations on EU Settlement Scheme (EUSS) and many other issues. It draws on recent research with identifies the ongoing struggles with the EU Settlement Scheme.

This report gathered information in relation to the EU Settlement Scheme shared with us between 2020 to 2024 by Roma people living in London. It highlights experiences Roma people have in relation to using the EUSS digital only status and challenges arising from new rules developed since the EUSS deadline.

Citizens of most EU countries living in the UK have the right to vote in the European elections. This table shows which countries allow their citizens in the UK to vote in the European elections, and how.

Based on official population estimates and population projections, this briefing examines the impact of migration on recent and future UK demographic trends.

Catherine Barnard unpacks the European Commission’s recent UK-EU youth mobility recommendation. She highlights that what was suggested was not a return to free movement and explores why this has been put forward now.

This report explores the ongoing barriers Roma EU citizens face when accessing and proving their rights under the EU Settlement Scheme. Despite the application deadline having passed, many remain without status or struggle with the digital-only system. The report recommends reforms needed to make the scheme more accessible and functional — for Roma and other vulnerable EU citizens in the UK.

This book offers an in-depth exploration of the lives of EU migrant workers in the UK following Brexit and COVID-19.

This briefing examines data on how well different groups of migrants living in England and Wales speak English, and the relationship between English language proficiency and activity in the labour market.

This briefing examines settlement or indefinite leave to remain (ILR), which is when a migrant is granted the right to live indefinitely in the UK. It looks at how many non-EU migrants settle in the UK, and discusses the post-Brexit EU Settlement Scheme.

This briefing considers the different ways in which one can understand who counts as a migrant in the UK and the implications of using different definitions.

This joint submission reflects Roma Support Group’s organisational experience and insights from their work and also draws on some of the findings from a collaborative mixed methods study, conducted by Law for Life, Anglia Ruskin University, and Lancaster University (Centre for Child and Family Justice Research), which examined the experiences of Roma families with child protection services in England.

This briefing provides data on migrants’ labour market integration and the jobs they do in the UK labour market. It also presents data on migrants’ employment and unemployment rates, occupational status, earnings, and contract types.

This briefing examines international students in the UK. It presents statistics on their numbers, characteristics, economic impact, what they do after their studies, and how many settle in the UK.

JUSTICE began the EUSS Working Group to assess key operational issues within the scheme. The Working Group identified a number of areas for improvement, and makes 16 recommendations, under four key themes: Eligibility, Suitability and Validity; Review and Appeals; Communication; and Post Application Digital Status.

This policy paper intends to communicate the key insights of the research carried out in the Common Ground project and it explores the policy implications both in terms of future policy frameworks and people to people connections. The recommendations are especially directed to political leaders and policymakers in the UK and EU institutions to foster cooperation and constructive future relationships.

This briefing looks at citizenship and naturalisation among migrants in the UK. It provides data on how many migrants become UK citizens and how this varies for different migrant groups, as well as the factors that affect naturalisation.

This briefing provides an overview of the implications of the UK’s new relationship with the EU for people wishing to visit or move to the EU. It also highlights some useful sources of further information for constituents. It focuses on the broad requirements applicable to British citizens and also refers to the UK’s comparable requirements for EU citizens.

How many EU migrants are there in the UK? How has the migration of EU citizens changed since Brexit? This briefing provides key statistics on EU migrants and migration in the UK.

This briefing examines the migration of family members to the UK. This includes migration of people who come to join British or settled residents in the UK, families of refugees, as well as people joining or accompanying migrants who hold temporary status.

Catherine Barnard and Fiona Costello set out why an automatic extension of EU pre-settled status for a further two years for those yet to ‘upgrade’ will leave more vulnerable individuals in an ongoing precarious position.

As the UK continues to move towards a fully online system for evidencing immigration status, Kuba Jabłonowski sets out the ongoing issues with digital immigration status, including various glitches and difficulty coping with multiple records.

This British Future report analyses new research on public attitudes towards the UK’s future relationship with the EU. It covers such issues as whether people would support closer cooperation between the UK and EU, including on specific issues; the extent to which the public feels the UK-EU relationship is important for the future; and whether people feel there are shared values or a shared sense of identity between people in Britain and the European Union.

Now that the UK has left the European Union, what voting and candidacy rights will EU citizens have in UK elections?

This survey explores the views of EU citizens living in the UK in 2023 on EU citizenship, political priorities, and participation in European Parliament elections — including past voting behaviour, intentions for future elections, and sources of political news.

Helena Wray highlights the issues with the UK’s family migration policies in light of a new House of Lords report, looking at how the system will now impact a new group – EU citizens without settled or pre-settled status in relationships with British citizens and residents.

This pilot research report from a.r.u. explores the experiences of older EU migrants (aged 50+) living in the UK and how the post-Brexit, post-pandemic world has impacted their social integration, access to services, retirement plans, and family reunification. Building on earlier findings, it highlights challenges in two regions: Fenland and Medway.

This report from the Justice and Home Affairs Committee explores how current UK family migration policies create challenges for families seeking to live together, including British citizens and refugees. It highlights how restrictive rules, high costs, and delays can affect family life, and recommends reforms to make the system clearer, more accessible, and better aligned with government commitments to support families.

Focusing on the3million—a major organisation that was formed after the 2016 Brexit Referendum to represent EU citizens in the UK, this article explores the role of online communication in supporting civic actors’ lobbying and mobilisation strategies at local, national and international …

This 3 year ESRC-funded project will chart the post-Brexit experiences of UK-EU couples, who had previously enjoyed an almost unconditional right to live in the UK. After Brexit, those whose partnership postdates December 2020, couples living elsewhere in the EU wishing to relocate to the UK after 29th March 2022, and those in the UK where the EU partner does not have settled or pre-settled status or another visa must all apply for spouse/partner visas.

This report provides research evidence on the inclusion of international migrants in local policy making in the municipality of Birmingham, United Kingdom (UK), with a specific focus on the existing equality, diversity, integration and civic participation policy and practice in the city as well as capturing progress over time. https://research.aston.ac.uk/en/publications/the-inclusion-of-migrants-in-policy-making-a-report-on-birmingham

Brexit has restricted the rights of UK citizens to live and work in Europe—but this shift also raises a bigger question: why don’t we value free movement more? In this piece, Chris Bertram argues for seeing cross-border mobility not just as a refuge from hardship, but as a fundamental freedom that enriches our lives, expands our choices, and deserves greater political attention.

This article analyses the political engagement and mobilization of the EU citizens post-Brexit and investigates the extent to which these have led to the creation of an EU diaspora in the UK. While Brexit triggered a stronger European identity and mobilization on the basis of it, the orientation toward, and investment in, the EU diasporic mobilization among EU citizens differs due to these positionalities. The findings, therefore, point toward the creation of a post-national EU diaspora in the UK, but also identify the strength of national and regional identities, which could indicate the development of different gravity diaspora points in future, nested in the EU …

This article explores how Polish migrants in the UK have experienced and responded to the combined impacts of Brexit and COVID-19. While many have left or are considering leaving, others are staying—but both return and stay narratives often frame Poles primarily as economic workers rather than full members of society. Drawing on interviews with Polish residents in Bristol, the study reveals how emotional ties, practical needs, and perceptions of belonging all shape their decisions in an uncertain post-Brexit Britain.

This report aims to gather all available evidence about democratic participation levels for ethnic minority and marginalised immigrant groups in the UK. We define democratic participation as taking part in the electoral process and therefore focus on the two stages of this process in the UK – registering to vote and turning up for elections.

Professor Catherine Barnard, Sarah Fraser Butlin and Fiona Costello will be working together to explore the experiences of EU citizens living and working in the UK and their experiences and perceptions of Brexit

This report examines how the EU Settlement Scheme (EUSS) handled complex cases involving vulnerable applicants. Based on support provided to over 1,000 people by Law Centres, it finds that the scheme’s design did not adequately account for applicants with barriers like poor digital or English literacy, unstable housing, or mental health needs. It also highlights disproportionate impacts on children, long-term residents, and Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic applicants. The report calls for a more systemic approach to vulnerability, better monitoring, and policy changes to ensure ongoing support and fair treatment.

While formally Brexit may be behind us, the EU diaspora in the UK is becoming a political actor Brexiters could not foresee, write Zana Vathi and Ruxandra Trandafoiu(Edge Hill University). They argue that a ‘civic’ Europeanness was activated by Brexit and has started to create bridges among Europeans in the UK who are emerging as a dynamic diaspora collective of political …

This report captures the findings of two All-Party Parliamentary Group roundtables, held in 2018 and 2020, on the impact of Brexit and the EU Settlement Scheme on Roma communities. Drawing on input from Roma individuals, parliamentarians, academics and civil society, it highlights ongoing concerns and the need for better engagement with Roma communities.

The United Kingdom’s decision to leave the European Union has triggered a variety of forms of political engagement among EU nationals living in the UK. Our research, carried out in the North West of England, an area that has received little attention so far, demonstrates that the result of the 2016 Referendum sparked a new awareness of public discourse, has led to the emergence of new political and discursive attitudes and strategies, as well as persuasive reflexivity and incipient activism on the part of EU nationals. This article thus contributes to the existing literature on political engagement by analysing EU nationals’ cognitive, discursive and pro/re-active engagements with …

Focusing on the cases of the UK and Germany, we discuss how, despite their distinctive welfare regimes and labour market systems, these two countries have led the way toward a dismantling of non-discrimination for EU citizens and effectively the end of the anomalous ‘post-national’ dimension of European citizenship.

This project explores the recruitment and experiences of seasonal agricultural migrant workers during the 2020–2021 harvests. With 94% of seasonal workers in the UK being EU nationals, their role remained essential to food security during the COVID-19 pandemic, despite major recruitment and protection challenges.

The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) is a unique tool which measures policies to integrate migrants in countries across six continents, including all EU Member States (including the UK), other European countries (Albania, Iceland, North Macedonia, Moldova, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine), Asian countries (China, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, United Arab Emirates), North American countries (Canada, Mexico and US), South American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile), South Africa, and Australia and New Zealand in Oceania.

This collection of research as part of the EU families & Eurochildren in Brexiting Britain project explores the experiences of children in EU families living in the UK—many born British—and how Brexit has reshaped their sense of belonging, identity, and family life in post-EU Britain.